Test of English as a
Foreign Language
disingkat TOEFL adalah ujian kemampuan berbahasa Inggris (logat Amerika)
yang diperlukan untuk mendaftar masuk ke kolese (college) atau universitas di Amerika Serikat atau negara-negara lain di
dunia. Ujian ini sangat diperlukan bagi pendaftar atau pembicara yang bahasa ibunya bukan bahasa Inggris. Ujian TOEFL ini
diselenggarakan oleh kantor ETS (Educational Testing Service) di Amerika Serikat untuk semua peserta tes di
seluruh dunia.
Jenis tes bahasa Inggris TOEFL ini pada
umumnya diperlukan untuk persyaratan masuk kuliah pada hampir semua universitas
di Amerika Serikat dan Kanada baik untuk program undergraduate (S-1)
maupun graduate (S-2 atau S-3). Hasil tes TOEFL ini juga dipakai sebagai
bahan pertimbangan mengenai kemampuan bahasa Inggris dari calon mahasiswa yang
mendaftar ke universitas di negara lain, termasuk universitas di Eropa dan
Australia. Secara umum, tes TOEFL lebih berorientasi kepada American English,
dan sedikit berbeda dengan jenis tes IELTS
yang berorientasi kepada British English. Tidak seperti tes IELTS, tes
TOEFL ini pada umumnya tidak mempunyai bagian individual interview test.
Selain itu TOEFL pada dewasa ini sudah mulai digunakan dalam dunia kerja
sebagai salah satu mekanisme rekruitment atau jenjang kenaikan pangkat.
Biasanya tes ini memakan waktu sekitar tiga
jam dan diselenggarakan dalam 4 bagian, yaitu bagian:
·
listening
comprehension,
·
grammar
structure and written expression,
·
reading
comprehension, dan bagian
·
writing.
Jenis TOEFL dan Skornya
Tes bahasa inggris TOEFL terdiri
dari dua jenis yaitu Computer-based Testing dan Paper-Based Testing. Model Computer-based
Testing adalah tes yang menggunakan media komputer. Skor penilaian model
ini berada pada kisaran 216-677. Sedangkan Paper Based Testing adalah
tes yang menggunakan kertas sebagai media pengujiannya. Skor penilaian
dengan model ini berada pada kisaran 450-550 ke atas. Nilai hasil
ujian TOEFL berkisar antara: 310 (nilai minimum) sampai 677 (nilai maximum)
untuk versi PBT (paper-based test).
Sejak tahun 1998, tes TOEFL ini
diadakan secara online dengan menggunakan komputer (Computer-based
Testing/CBT), dan sejak tahun 2005 disebut iBT (Internet-based Test).
Di tempat-tempat yang belum bisa melaksanakan CBT atau iBT (karena belum ada
fasilitas komputer dan jaringan internetnya), ujian TOEFL ini masih tetap
diadakan secara manual menggunakan kertas dan potlot (paper-based test atau
PBT). Informasi lebih lengkap tentang tes CBT dan paper-based TOEFL
berkaitan dengan pendaftaran, lokasi penyelenggaraan, biaya, dan bahan-bahan
persiapan tes dapat dilihat di situs resmi TOEFL, http://www.toefl.org (hasil ujian TOEFL
versi CBT mempunyai nilai berkisar antara 0 sampai 300, sementara nilai untuk
iBT adalah dari 0 sampai 120).
Akhir-akhir
ini penyelenggara tes TOEFL juga mengadakan jenis tes TWE (Test of Written
English) yang hasil nilainya terpisah dari nilai tes TOEFL. Tes ini memakan
waktu selama 30 menit, dan peserta akan diminta untuk menuliskan karangan
singkat yang menggambarkan mengenai kemampuan peserta untuk mengekspresikan dan
menuangkan suatu gagasan atau ide, serta mendukung gagasan itu dengan
contoh-contoh yang terdapat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dengan menggunakan
bahasa Inggris yang standar. Bila TWE (Test of Written English) termasuk
bagian yang diujikan, biasanya tes ini dilaksanakan sebelum ujian Listening
Comprehension
Sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOEFL
Listening
Listening is often confused with hearing. While
hearing is a biological process that can be scientifically explained, listening
is a neurological cognitive regarding the processing of auditory stimuli received
by the auditory system.
Roland
Barthes, a linguist, distinguishes between hearing and listening, stating,
"Hearing is a physiological phenomenon; listening is a psychological
act." Barthes also states that "whereas for centuries listening could
be defined as an intentional act of audition...today it is granted the power
(and virtually the function) of playing over unknown spaces " including
unconscious forms. Hearing is always occurring, most of the time
subconsciously. Listening is the interpretative action taken by the listener in
order to understand and potentially make meaning out of the sound waves.
Listening can be understood on three levels: alerting, deciphering, and an
understanding of how the sound is produced and how the sound affects the
listener.
Alerting,
the first level, does nothing to distinguish human from animal. At the alerting
level one merely picks up on certain environmental sound cues. While discussing
this level, Barthes mentions the idea of territory being demarcated by sounds.
This is best explained using the example of one's home. One's home, for
instance, has certain sounds associated with it that make it familiar and
comfortable. An intrusion sound (e.g. a squeaking door or floorboard, a
breaking window) alerts the dweller of the home to the potential danger.
In
a metaphorical way, deciphering, the second level, is to listening what
digestion is to eating. An example of this level is that of a child waiting for
the sound of his mother's return home. In this scenario the child is waiting to
pick up on sound cues (e.g. jingling keys, the turn of the doorknob, etc) that
will mark his mother's approach.
Understanding,
the third level of listening, means knowing how what one says will affect
another. This sort of listening is important in psychoanalysis.
Barthes states that the psychoanalyst must turn off their judgement while listening
to the analysand in order to communicate with their patient's unconscious in a
unbiased fashion.
Listening
differs from obeying. Parents may commonly conflate
the two, by telling a disobedient child that he "didn't listen to
me". However, a person who receives and understands information or an
instruction, and then chooses not to comply with it or to agree to it, has
listened to the speaker, even though the result is not what the speaker wanted
READING
A : are you
cooking ?
B : yes, i
am
A : what
food are you cooking ?
B : i am
cooking rice
A : is mother
cooking too ?
B : no, she
isn’t
A : what is
mother doing ?
B : she is
sewing.
Struktur Toefl -
Grammar
Pengertian grammar
Menurut wikipedia adalah “grammar is the
set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and
words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such
rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often
complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguists do not normally
use the term to refer to orthographical rules, although usage books and style
guides that call themselves grammars may also refer to spelling and
punctuation.” Sedangkan pengertian
grammar menurut Oxford learner’s pocket dictionary adalah : book that
describes the rules for forming words and making sentences.
TOEFL merupakan singkatan dari Test
Of English as a Foreign Language. TOEFL
adalah standardisasi kemampuan bahasa inggris seseorang secara tertulis
yang meliputi empat aspek penguasaan: Listening, Writing dan Reading.
Struktur Grammer
A. Basic Sentences Stucture
In general,
there was no significant difference between the structure of English sentences
with Indonesian, where a sentence is built upon four main components, namely.
Subject
(S) + Verb (V) + Complement (C) + Modifier (M)
Example :
We
studied grammar last week
We +
studied + grammar + last week
S + V + C +
M
1.
SUBJECT
Ø is the agent of sentence in the active voice
Ø is thing/person that performs or responsible for
the action of a sentence
Ø normally precedes the verb
Example :
·
I explain how to study English
·
She listens to my explanation
·
They didn’t understand that languageThe subject can be seen from the question
who or what is doing the action of a sentence.
2.
VERB
Verb
is the action of a sentence. Verb phrase: auxilaries combination with the main
verb.
Example :
· I am
learning English (am = auxilary, learning =
main verb)
· My
brother is very clever
· She has
gone home (has =
auxilary, gone = main
verb)
· I have
been waiting here (have been =
auxilary, waiting =
main verb)
3.
COMPLEMENT
ü Usually a noun or noun phrase
ü usually found after the verb in the active sentence
ü complement to answer the question what or whom
example :
ü Sarijon bought a cake yesterday
ü What did Sarijon buy
yesterday? –> a cake.
ü He saw Tony at the movie
ü Whom did he see at the movie? –> Tony
ü I explain pharmacology to
my students
ü What do I explain to my students? –> pharmacology
4.
MODIFIER
ü Modifier describes the time, place, or manner of an action or actions
ü The most common form of the modifier is a propositional phrase (group
of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. Preposition = on,
out, under, behind, etc
ü Modifier answer the questions when, where, or how
Example :
ü John bought a book at a book fair
ü Where did John buy a book? –> at a book fair
ü She is driving very fast
ü How is
she driving? –> very fast
ü I posted my
application yesterday
ü When do I post my application? –> yesterday
example problems :
1)
The Eiffel Tower is a landmark in Paris, France
2) Young deer is fawns
3)
A dream about falling is scary
4) Those flowers are beautiful
B.
Parallel Structure
Parallelism means that
the words used in a series or group that should have the same form as grammar.
When we use words or phrases that are connected by a chain, then it must be the
same shape as grammar. Consider the following example:
· Terry likes swimming and
to dive. (False - not parallel)
· Terry likes swimming and diving. (True -
parallel)
· Terry likes to swim and (to) dive. (True -
parallel)
· I'm taking history, math, and chemical. (False
- Chemical not a noun)
· I'm taking history, math, and chemistry
Example problem :
Identify and correct the mistakes in parallel structure in the
following sentences
1.
I swept the yard, weeded the garden and washed the clothes.
2. James decided to get up early,
practice some yoga and eat healthy foods.
3. Although I trained hard, practiced
every day and listened to my trainer, I never won a
tournament.
4. I wish he would listen to me, take my
advice and stop smoking.
5. He is an articulate, intelligent and thoughtful
speaker.
C.
Comparative Adjectives
When talking about the
two objects, we can compare and see the differences as well similarities
between the two objects. Maybe it has the same thing on one side and the
difference on the other side. To compare the difference between the two objects
we use comparative adjectives. Comparison is only using comparative adjectives
to compare between two objects only.
There are
two ways to create a comparative adjectives:
1. Adding the suffix-er (short adjectives)
2. Adding more prefix (long adjectives)
1. Adding the suffix-er (short adjectives)
2. Adding more prefix (long adjectives)
Addition of
a suffix rule for short adjectives:
ü Generally only added adjective-er, for example: older, smaller,
richer, etc.
ü If the ending-e, just add r, for example: later, nicer, etc.
ü If the ending in a
consonant-vowel-consonant, the final consonant plus, then plus-er, for example:
bigger, hotter, etc.
ü If the ending-y, then y changed to i then added
er, for example: happier, Earlier, busier, heavier, etc.
ü For long adjectives, the rule only adds more words only on adjectives,
for example: expensive to be more expensive, more beautiful to be beautiful,
and so on. Some adjectives have irregular shapes, such as good - better, well
(healthy) - better, bad - worse, far - farther / further, etc.
Adjectives with two syllables can use-er or more: quiet - quieter /
more quiet, clever - cleverer / more clever, narrow - narrower / more narrow,
simple - Simpler / more simple. Comparative adjectives are not only used to
compare two different objects, but can also be used to compare the same object
that points to itself, and the object is not to say, as one example sentence
above: I want to have a more powerful computer.
Adjectives with two syllables
If the
adjective has two or more syllables, we add more before the adjective. example:
ü This book is more expensive than that book.
ü This picture is more
beautiful.
However,
there are many exceptions to the rule of one / two syllables it.
Some words with 2 syllables have properties similar to words that have 1 syllable.
Some words with 2 syllables have properties similar to words that have 1 syllable.
Example:
§ This is Easier – True
§ This is more easy - not really
§ This is Simpler – True
§ This is more simple - not true
And some adjectives
can use both comparative form. example:
· Clever - cleverer - more
clever: These are all correct
· Quiet - quieter - more
quiet: These are all correct.
No exceptions can be learned through the rules,
the best way to learn is to learn it one by one.
Example
problems :
1.
The Nile river is longer than the Amazon.
2.
I’m taller than Yuri but shorter than
Miko.
3.
They’re more handsome than us, but we’re smarter
than them.
4.
This book bag is more expensive than that bag.
5.
This newspaper is better than that newspaper.
Selain contoh diatas ada
juga struktur toefl grammar yang
lainnya yaitu :
a)
Passive Voice
Kalimat pasif jelas berbeda dengan kalimat aktif.
Kegunaannya pun berbeda dalam bahasa Inggris. Dalam kalimat aktif, subjek lah
yang melakukan pekerjaan, sedangkan dalam kalimat pasif, objek lah yang
melakukan pekerjaan.
Perubahan kalimat dari aktif menjadi kalimat pasif dapat dilihat
sebagai berikut :
Aktif : Hendry often helps my mother.
Pasif : My mother is often helped by Hendry.
Aktif : I sent this letter three days ago.
Pasif : This letter was sent by me three days ago.
Kalimat pasif digunakan jika kita ingin memfokuskan kejadiannya, bukan
siapa ataupun apa yang melakukannya.
Contoh
:
The city was destroyed during the World War II.
(Kota itu hancur selama Perang Dunia II.)
Kalimat pasif juga digunakan jika kita ingin menghindari suatu objek
yang semu seperti somebody/someone.
Contoh :
The letter has to be sent today.
(Suratnya harus dikirim hari ini.)
Dalam passive voice kita juga dapat menggunakan “by”
jika kita ingin mengatakan siapa atau apa yang melakukan suatu kejadian.
Contoh :
The fence was broken last week. à tidak diketahui siapa/apa pelakunya.
The fence was broken by the storm last week. à menjadi diketahui.
b)
Adjective
Adjective merupakan kata sifat yang digunakan untuk menerangkan kata benda. Adjective
dapat digunakan di depan benda countable ataupun uncountable.
Contoh :
expensive bag à tas mahal
new Friend à teman baru
Berikut
adalah jenis-jenis adjective :
ü Qualitative adj : menerangkan
bentuk/kejadian suatu benda.
(big, small, tall, etc.)
ü Distributive adj : bersifat distributive
(every, either, each, etc.)
ü Possessive adj : menunjukan
kepunyaan.
(his, her, my, etc.)
ü Demonstrative adj : untuk menunjuk suatu benda.
(that, this, those, etc.)
ü Interrogative adj : untuk menanyakan suatu benda.
(which, what, whose)
ü Quantitative adj : menerangkan jumlah benda.
(many, some, much, etc.)
ü Colour
adj :
menerangkan warna benda.
(red, green, yellow, etc.)
Ada juga
jenis adjective yang berikutnya, yaitu compound adjective.
Compound Adjective yaitu kata bilangan yang dapat digabungkan dengan kata benda dalam
bentuk singular.
Contoh :
a.
Age (usia)
A fifty years old woman. à
salah
A fifty year old
woman. à benar
b.
Volume (isi)
He has just bought a ten litres car. à salah
He has just bought a ten litre car. à
benar
c. Length (panjang)
Fifteen metre house. (not metres)
Price (harga)
Sixty dollar camera. (not dollars)
d. Weight (bobot)
Ten kilo package. (not kilos)
e. Are (bidang)
Twenty acre farm. (not acres)
f. Time (waktu)
Two hour meeting. (not hours)
c) Comparison Degree
Adalah
tingkat-tingkat perbandingan yang terdiri dari jenis-jenis berikut :
1)
Positive degree
Menunjukan
kesamaan mutu, banyaknya, tingkatan, derajat, antara suatu benda dengan benda
lainnya.
Contoh :
The girl
is as old as my mother.
I am as tall
as my sister.
2)
Comparative degree
Digunakan
jika kita ingin menunjukan secara jelas bahwa terdapat ketidaksamaan
perbandingan antara benda yang satu dengan benda lainnya.
Contoh :
I’m
shorter than my brother.
My bag is more expensive than her.
Aturan
dalam comparative degree ini adalah jika kata sifat kurang atau
sama 2 suku kata, maka untuk perbandingannya kita menambahkan “er” pada kata
sifat tersebut. Tetapi jika kata sifat yang kita gunakan untuk membandingkan
adalah lebih dari 2 suku kata, maka kita tambahkan “more” di depan kata sifat
tersebut.
3)
Superlative degree
Digunakan
untuk membandingkan seseorang atau beda yang melebihi orang-orang atau
benda-benda lainnya. (paling)
Contoh :
Dave is the tallest in the class.
Ellie is the most diligent student.
Aturan
dalam superlative degree ini mirip seperti comparative degree.
Jika kata yang kita gunakan untuk membandingkan kurang atau sama dengan 2 suku
kata, maka kita tambahkan “est” pada kata tersebut. Sedangkan jika lebih dari 2
suku kata maka kita tambahkan “most” di depan kata tersebut.
d) Adjective
Clause
Merupakan
anak kalimat yang berfungsi sebagai modifier atau menggantikan kedudukan
dari adjective dalam kalimat majemuk.
Contoh :
1. The boy who studies in Gunadarma University is Doni.
2. The man whom you met yesterday is my father.
3. The girl whose dress is white is my sister.
Who,
whom, whose,
kemudian ada juga which, dan that merupakan relative clauses yang
fungsinya adalah melengkapi adjective clause.
Masing-masing relative
clauses digunakan sebagai berikut :
Who
:
digunakan berhubungan dengan subjek (orang)
Whom
: digunakan berhubungan dengan objek (orang)
Which
:
digunakan berhubungan dengan subjek atau objek (benda)
That
:
digunakan berhubungan dengan subjek atau objek (benda/orang)
Whose
:
digunakan berhubungan dengan kata ganti milik.
e) The Zero Article
Merupakan kata sandang
yang kadang-kadang tidak digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris.
Kata sandang tidak
digunakan di depan kata benda plural jika yang dimaksud adalah sesuatu
yang bersifat umum.
Contoh :
a)
People : Doctors are paid better than
teacher.
b)
Animals : Cats don’t like cold weather.
c)
Food
: Carrots are good for eyes.
d)
Places : Museums are closed on
Monday.
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